Cacao

 GENERAL

Theobroma cacao is a tropical tree from the family Steruliaceae, which can grow 4-8 meters high in culture. It is generally accepted that the genus Theobroma evolved in South America, where most Theobroma species are found. Theobroma cacao spread from the upper Amazon basin up into Central America and into Mexico, either naturally, or through human intervention (see McNeil 2006: 4f).  

Theobroma cacao exhibits a very wide range of variation in fruit and flower color and shape. This led botanists to distinguish Theobroma cacao into 2 subspecies: Criollo (Theobroma cacao ssp. cacao) and Forastero (Theobroma cacao ssp. sphaerocarpum). Most often, variants in between are referred to as Trinitario cultivars. Forastero also differs from criollo in taste, and is slightly more bitter than the taste of criollo (see McNeil. 2006: 6; Ogata et al. 2006: 71).

The Cacao tree was once considered sacred by the Aztecs, Linné named this very tree "Theobroma", which means "food of the gods". The word "cacao" is a Spanish adaptation of the Nahua word "kakawa-tl" (or "cacaoatl"). The basis for the word "chocolate" - "chocolatl"- also comes from the Nahua language, although the origin of this word is rather disputed, and seems to be a late development dating back to the 16th century (see McNeil 2006: 3).

THE RITUAL USE OF CACAO IN EARLY MESOAMERICA

The cacao tree is even depicted in Mesoamerican iconography as a cosmic or sacred tree, an Axis Mundi or World Tree.

In pre-Columbian times, the possession of cacao was regarded as a sign of wealth, dominance and power. Cacao beans were also used, for example, as a means of payment (see McNeil 2006: 12). Along with maize, cacao was the most important plant food in early Mesoamerica. Cacao connected humanity with the gods-it was used at important life events, as a healing drink, and also as a luxury good (see Seawright 2012: 1). According to Mayan and Aztec beliefs, cacao was part of the creation myth. They believed that the gods created humans from corn, cacao, or other plant foods, or that these particular plants were brought to humans by the gods. According to people at that time, humanity connects with the divine through the consumption of cacao. For example, there are reports from the 16th century that describe children being "baptized" with a mixture of cacao, water and flowers during an initiation ritual. Also, fathers are described as instructing their sons, when they enter some sort of religious school, to offer that "cacaoatl" drink to the gods. Cacao also plays a role in marriage ceremonies, so it was apparently often used in religious rites or other festivities (see Seawright 2012: 5).

THE PREPARATION OF CACAO IN PRE-COLUMBIAN TIMES

Some scientists believe that in pre-Columbian South America, only the pulp surrounding the seeds was used, and not the seeds themselves, to make a drink. The sweet pulp, which also contains theobromine and caffeine, can be removed from the seeds and made into a type of fruit drink, or it can be fermented to make an alcoholic beverage. It is thought that cacao seeds were not used, because there were other plants with higher levels of stimulants in these regions that did not need to be processed first (harvesting, fermenting, drying, roasting, grounding, etc.). Stimulant plants such as guarana, mate, yoco, etc. were not as readily available in Mesoamerica in the past, which explains why cacao beans, which contain caffeine and theobromine, gained importance in Mesoamerica. However, it is also assumed that in Mesoamerica the pulp was first used to make a drink, and then only after a time the process was developed to process cacao beans into a drink (see McNeil 2006: 7).

CACAO DRINKS IN MESOAMERICA IN COLONIAL TIMES

There are some records from missionaries and Spanish colonizers about the preparation of cacao in colonial times. For example, according to Aguilar-Monero (2006), the missionary Bartolomé de las Casas describes, "The drink (chocolate) is water mixed with a certain flour made of some nuts called cacao." (Aguilar-Monero 2006: 274). The royal physician of Philip II of Spain, Fernando Hernandez, also stayed in Mexico in 1572-1577 and recorded a cacao recipe. This recipe describes 3 plants that were used to flavor Aztec cacao drinks: hueinacaztli flower (Cymbopetalum penduliflorum), which tastes similar to spicy pepper; tlilxochitl bean (vanilla); and mecaxochitl flower (Piper sp.) a relative of black pepper. According to Hernandez, this drink has tonic effects, warms the stomach, perfumes the breath, fights toxins, and relieves intestinal pain and colic. It is also likely that the Aztecs mixed ground cacao powder into fermented drinks as well (see Aguilar-Monero 2006: 274).

In the early colonial period, various additives were also used to flavor cacao drinks, for example achiote paste, vanilla, ground chilies, honey, ground seeds of Ceiba pentandra or Pouteria sapota, the fruit of Pimenta dioica, and various aromatic flowers such as Cymbopetalum penduliflorum, Piper sanctum, Quarariba funebris, Magnolia dealbata, Magnolia mexicana, and Bourreria species (see McNeil 2006: 19).

CACAO DRINKS OF THE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN TODAY'S MESOAMERICA

Today, various indigenous communities often use purchased chocolate bars, which can be purchased at the local market, among other places, to prepare cacao drinks. These bars contained (according to a report from 1919) about 1kg of sugar to 0.5kg of ground cacao, with vanilla and/or cinnamon also added. In addition, other spices could be added to this mixture such as achiote (Bixa orellana), ground chili (Capsicum sp.), sapuyul (Pouteria sapota), or even pepper and other aromatic flowers (see McNeil 2006: 348).

The ingredients of the cacao beverages and the specific name can be seen in the table below.

PHARMACOLOGY

Among other things, cocoa beans contain polyphenols, which are divided into 3 groups: Catechins, anthocyanins and proanthocyanins (see Genovese et al. 2017: 7). The consumption of dark chocolate with a high cocoa content is also associated, among other things, with positive effects on health. These positive effects, such as an anti-inflammatory effect, are mainly attributed to the polyphenols contained in cocoa beans (see Genovese et al. 2017: 9). Theobroma cacao has also been used in folk medicine to treat coughs, influenza, high blood pressure, inflammation, and so on. Studies have also found effects against cancer, diabetes, malaria, and hypertension (see Ishaq et al. 2017: 5).

In addition to polyphenols, methylxanthines such as theobromine and caffeine, tannins, saponins, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, and other alkaloids have also been found in cocoa beans (see Ishaq et al. 2017: 2).

Pharmacologically active components found in chocolate/cocoa beans include theobromine, caffeine, phenylethylamine, tyramine, serotonin, tryptophan, anandamide, salsolinol, tetrahydro-ß-carboline, and magnesium.

In earlier studies, theobromine was assumed to have no stimulant effect and was also described as practically inactive (see Smit 2011: 202). Theobromine already appears to have a caffeine-like effect, but unlike caffeine it is a very mild stimulant. Theobromine can have diuretic, smooth muscle relaxing, cardiac muscle stimulating, and vasodilating effects. Different varieties (e.g., Forastero, Criollo, Trinitario) contain different concentrations of theobromine, with Forastero usually containing the highest amount. However, there seems to be some disagreement as to the level of theobromine in cocoa beans, some found 0.7% - 2% theobromine, others found 1.2% - 3%. The content of theobromine can, as mentioned, vary from variety to variety, but also the stage of ripeness of the fruit and climatic conditions can play a role (see Smit 2011: 204f).

Smit (2011) suggests that caffeine and theobromine are probably the only substances that play a role in the psychopharmacological activity of chocolate. It was found that the combination of caffeine (19mg) and theobromine (250mg) in 50 grams of dark chocolate had significant effects on energy levels, information processing and reaction time (see Smit 2011: 213).

Caffeine is present in small amounts in chocolate/cocoa beans, but since amounts as low as 12.5mg can have effects, it is assumed that caffeine in dark chocolate also already has pharmacological activity. As a psychostimulant, caffeine increases feelings of energy, improves other aspects of mood, and also enhances cognitive performance.

It also contains biogenic amines such as phenylethylamine, tyramine, serotonin, etc. However, these biogenic amines are broken down in the body by an enzyme called monoaminooxidase (MAO), and therefore do not produce any effects. The effects only occur in people with an MAO deficit or in people who take MAO inhibitors. However, this could lead to effects such as headaches, increased blood pressure and a life-threatening "amino shock" (see Smit 2011: 219f).

Phenylethlyamine also occurs endogenously in tiny quantities in the human brain. 2-Phenylethylamine or ß-phenylethylamine (PEA) is the basic structure for all compounds of the PEA family. This includes stimulant and hallucinogenic substances such as amphetamine and mescaline, as well as the endogenous neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.

In one study, PEA was associated with euphoric feelings that are part of sexual activity. PEA has also often been dubbed a love drug in the mass media. However, Smit (2011) calls it a myth that chocolate consumption makes people feel more "sensual" due to increased endogenous PEA levels. Thus, it is doubted that oral ingestion of PEA has beneficial psychopharmacological effects. Shulgin and Shulgin (1991) were also unable to determine any effect of PEA orally (see Smit 2011: 220f).

Tyramine is found in a variety of foods, but in chocolate in similarly low concentrations as PEA. Tyramine is thought to play a role in migraine attacks and the cheese effect. In the 1950s and 1960s, MAO inhibitors were prescribed for depression, making patients vulnerable to the toxic effects of tyramine, which is found in higher concentrations in some cheeses. Symptoms of the cheese effect included hypertensive crisis, massive headaches, and cerebral hemorrhage and heart failure. There is no evidence of beneficial effects of tyramine on mood or behavior.

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in regulating mood. It can be found in a number of foods such as bananas, pineapple and chocolate. However, after oral ingestion, serotonin is rapidly metabolized by the enzyme MAO. The precursor of serotonin, tryptophan, which is also found in chocolate, is not affected. High doses of tryptophan have been found to be an effective antidepressant. Nevertheless, Smit (2011) considers it unlikely that mood changes that occur through the consumption of chocolate are due to the tryptophan content (see Smit 2011: 221f).

Anandamide is an endogenous substance that binds to the cannabinoid receptors in the human brain. Anandamide has been found in minute concentrations in chocolate, whereas it does not appear to be present in white chocolate. Furthermore, the bioavailability of anandamide is very poor and does not exceed 5%. It is therefore unlikely that anandamide in chocolate has any effect.

Salsolinol and tetrahydro-ß-carboline (THBC) were found in milk chocolate, dark chocolate and cocoa powder ("cocoa"). Salsolinol was found at the following concentrations, 5mg, 20mg and 25mg/kg. THBC's were present at 1.4mg, 5.5mg and 3.3mg/kg. Nevertheless, there seems to be no evidence in the literature about increased levels of these substances in the blood, with chocolate consumption. Nevertheless, it is noted that THBC's are mild MAO inhibitors and could possibly enhance the effect of biogenic amines in chocolate, and thus contribute to migraine (see Smit 2011: 223).

Nevertheless, cocoa drinks seem to be of interest today as well, even though ordinary cocoa is often not considered a psychoactive drink or even denied to be psychoactive. The presented study is mainly about processed, ready-to-eat chocolate and not about a beverage made from raw cacao beans. Furthermore, this study also does not discuss possible interactive effects between ingredients. So the last word on the psychoactivity of Theobroma cacao is not yet out for experimental psychonauts who might want to try a drink made from raw cacao beans.

Sources:

Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel (2006): The Good and Evil of Chocolate in Colonial Mexico. In: McNeil, Cameron (ed). Chocolate in Mesoamerica. A Cultural History of Cacao. University Press of Florida, pp. 273-288.

Genovese, Marie Inés et al. (2017): Theobroma cacao and Theobroma grandiflorum: Bioactive Compounds and Associated Health Benefits. In: Merillon, J.M.; Ramawat, K.G. (eds.). Bioactive molecules in Food, Reference Series in Phythochemistry. Springer International Publishing, pp. 1-22

Henderson, John et al. (2006): Brewing Distinction: The Development of Cacao Beverages in Formative Mesoamerica. In: McNeil, Cameron (ed). Chocolate in Mesoamerica. A Cultural History of Cacao. University Press of Florida, pp. 140-153.

Ishaq, Sara et al. (2017): Biomedical Importance of Cocoa (Theobroma cacao): Significance and Potential for the Maintenance of Human Health. In: Matrix Science Pharma 1 (1): 01-05.

McNeil, Cameron (2006): Introduction: The Biology, Antiquity and Modern Uses of the Chocolate Tree. In: McNeil, Cameron (ed). Chocolate in Mesoamerica. A Cultural History of Cacao. University Press of Florida, pp. 1-28

McNeil, Cameron (2006): Traditional Cacao Use in Modern Mesoamerica. In: McNeil, Cameron (ed). Chocolate in Mesoamerica. A Cultural History of Cacao. University Press of Florida, pp. 341-366

Ogata, Nisato et al. (2006): The Domestication and Distribution of Theobroma cacao L.  in the Neotropics. In: McNeil, Cameron (ed). Chocolate in Mesoamerica. A Cultural History of Cacao. University Press of Florida, pp. 69-89

Seawright, Caroline. (2012): Life, Death and Chocolate in Mesoamerica: The Aztecs and the Maya; Where Did the Ritual Use of Cacao Originate?

Smit, Hendrik Jan (2011): Theobromine and the Pharmacology of Cocoa. In: Fredholm, B.B. (ed.). Methylxanthines, Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology 200. Berlin, pp. 201-234.